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Peptides Explained

Not a peptide

NAD+ precursors (NR, NMN, NAD+)

Vitamin B3 compounds sold beside peptides. They are not peptides, and their rules and risks are different.

Not a peptide

Short page. This is a short page. A full page with the complete evidence review is planned for version 1.1. The grades and regulatory status below are complete and sourced.

At a glance

Is it an approved medicine?
No It is not a peptide, and it is not an approved medicine in the EU.
Has it been tested in people?
Yes Many trials, mostly of pills. The biggest one, in 410 people with Parkinson's, found no benefit.7,6,12
Is it allowed in sport?
Unclear Not named on the anti-doping list. Drips over 100 mL in 12 hours are banned.16,26,17 Regulatory status
What is the biggest risk?
Drips and shots can carry germs. Long-term effects are unknown. More about the risks

Status checked on . The details and sources are further down this page.

Stop and get help if you notice

  • Hot, red, swollen skin where the needle went30
  • Fever or chills after a drip or injection53,12
  • Swollen face or throat, or trouble breathing54

If it is severe, call your local emergency number.

All warning signs, further down this page Warning signs for any peptide

The 30-second version

About 5 minutes for the short version; 11 with every detail open.

  • These are not peptides. NR and NMN are forms of vitamin B3 that the body turns into NAD+.
  • NR and NMN are sold as pills. NAD+ is also given as drips and injections.
  • In the EU, NR may be sold in food supplements. NMN may not, yet.
  • Pills raise NAD+ in blood. A large trial in Parkinson's disease found no benefit.
  • Drips and injections add the risks of any injection. Their benefit is unproven.
Class
Not a peptide
What they are
Vitamin B3 compounds, not peptides
How they are sold
Capsules; NAD+ also as drips or injections
EU food status
NR allowed in supplements; NMN not yet
Largest trial
410 people with Parkinson's: no benefit
Status in the EU
Not authorised
Tested in people
Yes

Label facts, not dosing advice. Sources are in the sections below.

Last reviewed
Vitamin B3 crystals under polarised light, forming blue, green and purple star-shaped patterns.
Vitamin B3 crystals in polarised light. The body makes NAD+ from NR and NMN, two forms of B3. Photo: Andrei Savitsky (Wikimedia Commons) CC BY-SA 4.0 Image details

Each section starts with the short answer. The rest is folded under “In detail”.

Evidence profile

Four separate questions. Not a score.

Human clinical evidence How far has it been tested in people?
Phase III (large controlled trials)
Preclinical volume How much laboratory and animal research exists?
Extensive
Source independence How many independent groups produced it?
Broadly replicated
Safety characterisation How well do we know the harms in humans?
Partial
In detail Why these grades: the reason for each step
Human clinical evidence
Phase 3. NOPARK, a randomised, placebo-controlled trial of nicotinamide riboside in 410 people with early Parkinson disease, was published in October 2026, and dozens of smaller randomised trials of NR and NMN exist. For NAD+ drips the evidence is a handful of small studies.
Preclinical volume
Extensive. On 23 October 2026 PubMed held 2,036 non-review records on nicotinamide riboside or NMN, 1,091 of them mentioning rats or mice.
Source independence
Broadly replicated. Human trials come from many independent university groups in Europe, North America and Asia; some use product supplied by makers, and some authors hold patents.
Safety characterisation
Partial. Oral NR and NMN were well tolerated in trials of weeks to a year, and EFSA judged both safe as supplements for adults within set limits. Long-term use, high intakes and drips are much less studied.

We never add these up. A compound can have a large animal literature from one laboratory and no human data at all — that is a specific situation, and a single number would hide it. How we grade evidence

In detail The molecule: amino-acid sequence and technical details
Full name
Nicotinamide riboside (NR), nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) and NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
Also called
NR, NMN, NAD+, NAD, nicotinamide riboside chloride, beta-NMN, nadide
Class
Not a peptide
Body systems
Metabolism, Cells and mitochondria, Brain and nerves

What it actually is

What are NAD+ precursors?

Forms of vitamin B3 that the body turns into NAD+. They are not peptides.
Three close relatives, each with its own legal place in the EU. What each is and how it is treated in the EU, checked on 23 October 2026.
NR (nicotinamide riboside)NMN (nicotinamide mononucleotide)NAD+ itself
Allowed in EU food supplements?Yes Authorised as a novel food since 2020.1No EFSA judged it safe for adults in 2026, but it is not yet authorised.2,3Unknown Not on the EU list of authorised novel foods; we found no EU decision on it.3
An approved medicine in the EU?No No.4No No.4No No.4,5
Tested in people?Yes Many trials, including one large one.6,7Yes Small trials.8Yes A few small studies of drips.9,10

They are on this site because they are sold beside peptides: in the US, NAD+ was put forward for pharmacy compounding and sits on the same FDA list as GHK-Cu, and clinics offer NAD+ drips as “longevity” treatments.11,12

In detail Why the category confusion matters

A peptide is a chain of amino acids. NR is a vitamin B3 ring joined to a sugar, NMN is NR with a phosphate group, and NAD+ joins NMN to a second unit that carries adenine; none contains an amino acid.13

The category decides which checks a product has had. In the EU, NR as a food supplement was assessed by EFSA for swallowing, within limits, for adults.14,1 Under EU law, food is something meant to be swallowed, so a product meant for injection or a drip is not a food.15 A supplement assessment therefore says nothing about whether an injection is sterile or safe. In sport, a drip of more than 100 mL in 12 hours is banned even if its contents are allowed.16,17

In detail The molecules

NAD+ (nadide) is C21H27N7O14P2, mass 663.4 g/mol; nicotinamide riboside is C11H15N2O5+, 255.25 g/mol; NMN is C11H15N2O8P, 334.22 g/mol.13 EFSA calls NR and NMN sources of nicotinamide, a form of niacin (vitamin B3).14,2

Proposed mechanism

How do they work?

The body turns them into NAD+, a helper for energy and repair. Pills raise NAD+ in blood.
The proposed causal chain, step by step

Each step is labelled with how well the link from the previous step is established.

  1. Step 1 Cell response In humans

    Pills raise NAD+ in the blood

    In a crossover trial in healthy middle-aged and older adults (30 randomised, 24 finished), six weeks of NR raised NAD+ and related molecules in blood cells compared with placebo.

  2. Step 2 Cell response In animals

    NAD+ helps cells make energy and repair themselves

    NAD+ is a helper molecule for energy-making and some repair enzymes. In rodents, ageing and obesity lower how much NAD+ the body makes; that is the idea behind the precursors.

  3. Step 3 Effect on the body In humans

    Better health in people: mostly not shown

    One small NMN trial improved muscle insulin sensitivity; other trials did not improve insulin sensitivity, and the largest trial, in Parkinson disease, found no benefit.

In detail What each step rests on

The rise in blood NAD+ is shown in people.18 The idea that more NAD+ means healthier ageing comes from rodents, in which obesity and ageing lower NAD+ production.8 NAD+ given by drip is removed from the blood very quickly, and which tissues take it up was not measured.9

What the evidence actually shows

Do they work?

They raise NAD+ in blood. Clear health benefits have not been shown.

In the largest trial, people did slightly worse than on placebo

+2.72 points

worse on a Parkinson's score after a year than on placebo; a small gap

Who took part NOPARK: 410 people with early Parkinson disease, NR by mouth for 52 weeks Source Brakedal et al. (2026)6 Evidence Human trials

The body's use of insulin did not get better

40

men with obesity took NR or placebo for 12 weeks

Who took part Dollerup 2018: randomised, double-blind trial Source Dollerup et al. (2018)19 Evidence Human trials

Muscles used insulin better in one small trial

25

women with prediabetes took NMN or placebo for 10 weeks

Who took part Yoshino 2021: randomised, double-blind trial Source Yoshino et al. (2021)8 Evidence Human trials

A small early trial in Parkinson’s disease looked promising; the large trial that followed did not confirm it.20,6

In detail Every study in one table

8 studies: 7 in humans, 1 in animals, 0 in cells, 0 reviews or other.

Studies discussed on this page
Study Species n Design Funding Research group What it found What it did not show
Dollerup et al. 2018 19 Humans 40 Randomised controlled trial (controlled, blinded) Not disclosed Independent group In 40 men with obesity and insulin resistance, 12 weeks of NR did not improve insulin sensitivity, blood sugar control, energy use or body composition; no serious side effects due to NR. Men only; 12 weeks; a high intake.
Martens et al. 2018 18 Humans 30 Randomised controlled trial (controlled, blinded) Mixed Mixed In 30 healthy middle-aged and older adults (24 completed), six weeks of NR was well tolerated and raised NAD+ metabolism in blood cells; effects on blood pressure were only hinted at. Small and short; blood measures, not health outcomes. The NR maker supplied the pills and part of the funding.
Grant et al. 2019 9 Humans 11 Pharmacokinetic study (controlled) Mixed Mixed In 11 healthy men, NAD+ given by drip over 6 hours disappeared from the blood almost at once for the first 2 hours; no adverse events were seen. Tiny; one drip; co-funded by a company whose director runs a clinic that gives NAD+ drips.
Yoshino et al. 2021 8 Humans 25 Randomised controlled trial (controlled, blinded) Government Mixed In 25 women with prediabetes after menopause, 10 weeks of NMN raised the muscles' response to insulin compared with placebo. Small; one sex and one age group; some authors hold NMN patents or receive licence fees.
Brakedal et al. 2022 20 Humans 30 Phase I trial (controlled, blinded) Not disclosed Mixed In 30 people newly diagnosed with Parkinson disease, 30 days of NR raised NAD in the brain and was linked to a mild clinical improvement. A small, short phase 1 trial; the larger trial that followed did not confirm a benefit.
Nakazzi et al. 2026 29 Mixed not reported Animal experiment (controlled) Not disclosed Independent group In pancreatic cancer cells and mice, NMN and nicotinamide helped cancer cells resist chemotherapy and supported tumour growth. Cells and mice only; shows a possible risk for people with active cancer, not a proven one.
Brakedal et al. 2026 6 Humans 410 Phase III trial (controlled, blinded) Government Mixed In 410 people with early Parkinson disease, a year of NR did not help: the rating score worsened slightly more than with placebo (2.72 points), and non-motor symptoms worsened more; serious adverse events were 8.3% against 14.1% on placebo. One disease; the difference was below what the trial counted as clinically important. The maker supplied NR and placebo.
Yu et al. 2026 10 Humans 180 Randomised controlled trial (controlled) Not disclosed Independent group In 180 adults with heart failure after heart attacks, 7 days of NAD+ drips on top of standard care gave a slightly higher pumping strength at one month (45.4% against 42.4%). One centre; blinding not stated; the 6-month outcome difference was not significant.

For NAD+ drips, a 2026 review found mostly small series, few placebo-controlled trials, and conflicting results, and called the drips experimental.12 One single-centre trial in 180 people with heart failure reported slightly better pumping after a week of drips; it needs repeating.10

Regulatory status

Are they legal?

NR pills are legal EU supplements. NMN is not yet, and no NAD+ injection is an approved medicine.
Food rules apply to pills. Neither the EU nor the US has approved any as a medicine. Status in the Netherlands, the EU and the US, and in sport, checked on 23 October 2026.
Netherlands and the EUUnited States
Approved as a medicine?No None.4,5No None.21
NR allowed in foods or supplements?Yes In food supplements, since 2020.1Yes The FDA had no questions about its use in foods (2016).22
NMN allowed in supplements?No Not yet authorised.3Yes The FDA said in 2025 that it is not excluded from supplements; a new-ingredient notice is still needed.23
Drips allowed in sport?No Not over 100 mL in 12 hours.16No The same worldwide rule.17
In detail Status in each country, and in sport
Regulatory status by jurisdiction
Jurisdiction Status Note Checked
European Union Not authorised No medicine. NR chloride is an authorised novel food for supplements (2020). NMN had a positive EFSA opinion in May 2026 but no EU authorisation yet. 4,1,2,3
Netherlands Not authorised No medicine in the CBG database. EU novel-food rules apply; an injection is not a food under EU law. 5,55
United States Not authorised Not an FDA-approved drug. NMN is not excluded from dietary supplements (FDA, 2025). NAD+ is under FDA evaluation for pharmacy compounding. 21,23,22,11
Sport (WADA) Unclear (not named) Unclear: none is named on the List. Separately, IV drips over 100 mL in 12 hours are banned whatever they contain. 16,26,17

All statuses were checked on 23 October 2026. In the EU, only novel foods on the EU list may be sold.1 EFSA gave a positive opinion on NMN in May 2026, but EFSA only advises; the Commission had not added NMN to the list by its 10 August 2026 version, and we found no later act.2,3 NMN also has an EU orphan designation as a possible medicine for sickle cell disease.24

In the US, the FDA had said in October 2022 that NMN could not be a supplement, because it had been studied as a drug. On 29 September 2025 it reversed this: NMN was sold as a supplement from 2017, before the drug studies. It remains a new dietary ingredient that needs notification before sale.23 NAD+ is in category 1 for pharmacy compounding: while the FDA evaluates it, the agency does not intend to act against pharmacies that compound it under set conditions.11,25

In sport, none of the three is named on the 2026 or 2027 List. Drips or injections of more than 100 mL in 12 hours are banned unless received in hospital care or with an exemption.16,26,17

Risk profile

What are the risks?

Pills seem well tolerated in short trials. Drips and injections add infection and other risks.
Pills caused few problems in short trials. Some long-term questions are open. What trials, EFSA and animal studies show, as of 23 October 2026.
Possible harmShown in people?
Serious side effects from pills in trialsNo Not more common than on placebo in the largest trial.6
Harm from high intakes over yearsUnknown EFSA noted possible ways high intakes could harm, and said the safe upper limit may need a new review.27
Helping an existing cancer growUnknown Seen in mice and cancer cells.28,29
Infection or reactions from drips and injectionsUnknown Procedural risks; not studied for NAD+.12,30
In detail Why these risks are theorised

Cancer cells also need NAD+. In mice with a breast cancer, NR led to more cancer spread to the brain; in pancreatic cancer cells and mice, NMN helped tumours resist chemotherapy.28,29 These are animal findings, not proof in people. EFSA’s safety conclusion for NMN does not cover pregnant or breastfeeding women; for NR, EFSA accepted only a lower intake for them. A 90-day rat study of NMN showed effects on reproductive organs.14,2 In Parkinson disease, a year of NR was slightly worse than placebo.6 See product risk.

If someone is going to do this anyway

This section exists to reduce harm. It gives no doses, schedules or sourcing advice, and it is not a recommendation to use this compound.

How can someone lower the risk?

Know which kind of product you have. Treat injections like any injection, and know when to stop.

If your product did not come from a pharmacy: check before you use it

These checks can show that something is wrong. None of them can show that a product is good or free of germs.31,32,33

Tick each box when you have checked it.

  • The seal and the vial are whole

    A broken cap or seal, or a cracked vial, can let germs in. Then do not use it.34,35,36

  • The label shows the name, amount, batch number and expiry date

    In the EU, a medicine must show all four, even on a small vial. If one is missing, or the date has passed, that is a warning sign. Take a photo of the label.37,34

  • For NAD+ precursors

    Check whether it is meant to be swallowed or injected. In the EU, food law covers only what is swallowed.15

  • It looks right

    A liquid, or a powder after mixing, should be clear and colourless, with no bits. Is it cloudy, has it changed colour, or do you see bits? Then do not use it.38,39

  • A lab report proves little if:

    • its batch number is not the one on your vial;
    • it does not name the lab, or has no date or signature;
    • it shows only purity (HPLC), with no test of what it is, such as mass spectrometry;
    • it has no test for germs (sterility) or for toxins from germs (endotoxin).

    Even a full report covers only one sample. A report from the seller comes from someone who gains if it looks good. It cannot show that your vial is clean.40,41,42,43,44

    What a certificate of analysis shows, and what it does not

  • It was kept as the label says

    Heat, freezing and sunlight can damage a peptide. Did it arrive warm, or was it frozen? Then do not use it. Often nobody can tell you how it was kept on the way. If you cannot know, you cannot rule out damage. When in doubt, throw it out.39,45,46,36

    When to throw a vial away

  • Clean steps, and a new sterile needle and syringe every time

    Wash your hands and wipe the rubber top with alcohol. Never share a needle, a syringe or a vial.36,47,45

    Sterile technique, step by step

  • Keep the vial, its label and any papers

    Keep them, even when the vial is empty, until you know you feel well. If you need a doctor, bring them. A lab can test what was inside.48,49

    If something goes wrong

  • Tell a doctor, and agree which checks fit you

    A doctor can help you choose blood tests that fit what you use. In the Netherlands, your doctor must keep what you say private.50,51,52

    Which checks matter, and whyTalking to your doctor

  • Know the warning signs before you start

    Spreading redness, fever, a swollen face or hard breathing need help fast. If it is severe, call your local emergency number.30,53,54

    All warning signs, and how fast to act

When to stop and get help

Sources 30, 53, 54, 12

Stop-now warning signs

Call your local emergency number now

  • Confusion or slurred speech, very fast breathing, or pale, blue or blotchy skin, often with fever or shivering These can be signs of sepsis: the body's reaction to an infection has started to damage its own organs.
  • Fainting and not waking up within a minute, or fainting with chest pain, a racing heart or a fit This can be a dangerous heart rhythm or a severe allergic reaction.
  • Pain at the injection spot that is much worse than it looks, or dark, purple or grey patches or blisters there This can be a rare, fast-spreading infection of the deep layers under the skin (necrotising fasciitis).
  • Swelling of the lips, tongue or throat, trouble breathing or swallowing, wheezing, a hoarse voice, or feeling faint, soon after an injection This can be a severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis), which is life-threatening and gets worse very quickly.

Get medical help today

  • Fever, shivering or feeling very ill in the days after an injection Germs from the needle, the skin or the product may have reached your blood. If you also have a fast heartbeat or fast breathing, call your local emergency number.
  • Redness, heat, swelling or pain around the injection spot that keeps growing or getting worse This can be a skin infection (cellulitis), which needs antibiotics before it spreads.
  • Red lines that run from the injection spot towards the armpit or groin The infection may be spreading along the lymph vessels, and from there into the blood. If you also have a fever with a fast heartbeat or fast breathing, call your local emergency number.
  • A painful, warm lump that fills with pus This is probably an abscess: it often needs draining by a doctor, so do not squeeze it.
  • You were pricked by a needle that someone else had used Blood on a used needle can pass on HIV and hepatitis B or C, and preventive treatment works best within hours.

Stop and contact a doctor

  • You fainted, but woke up quickly and now feel well Fainting is often harmless, but a doctor should check the cause.
  • A new mole, or a mole that changes size, shape or colour, itches or bleeds A changing mole can be skin cancer, and tanning peptides such as melanotan II have been linked to new and changing moles in case reports.
  • A lump at an injection spot that does not go away, or keeps growing A doctor should check whether it is an abscess, a reaction to the product or something else.
  • An itchy, raised rash, or puffy eyes or lips, while breathing stays normal Your body may be reacting to the product, and using it again can bring the reaction back.
In detail Checks that make sense, and who should be careful

A doctor can help you decide what fits you (see talking to your doctor):

  • Cancer treatment: tell your cancer team, because in mice and cancer cells these compounds helped tumours.29,28
  • Pregnancy or breastfeeding: EFSA’s safety conclusion for NMN does not cover you, and for NR it accepted only a lower intake.2,14
  • Parkinson’s disease: in the largest trial, NR did slightly worse than placebo.6
  • Sport: a drip of more than 100 mL in 12 hours breaks anti-doping rules.16,17

For injections, see sterile technique.

Sources

Every claim on this page links to one of these sources. Scholarly sources link to their DOI; regulatory sources to the regulator's own page.

In detail All 55 sources, numbered as in the text
  1. European Commission (2020). Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2020/16 of 10 January 2020 authorising the placing on the market of nicotinamide riboside chloride as a novel food under Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 and amending Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470. Official Journal of the European Union, L 7, 13.1.2020, p. 6. Law eur-lex.europa.eu — accessed 23 October 2026 ↩
  2. EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA), Turck D, Bohn T, Cámara M, et al. (2026). Safety of beta-nicotinamide mononucleotide (β-NMN) pursuant the regulation (EU) 2015/2283 and the bioavailability of nicotinamide from this source in the context of Directive 2002/46/EC. EFSA Journal 24:e10007. Regulator doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2026.10007 ↩
  3. European Commission (2026). Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470 establishing the Union list of novel foods, consolidated text of 10 August 2026. EUR-Lex, CELEX 02017R2470-20260810. Law eur-lex.europa.eu — accessed 23 October 2026 ↩
  4. European Medicines Agency (2026). Medicines data download (JSON report of all EPARs: authorised, refused, withdrawn and suspended medicines). Dataset ema.europa.eu — accessed 20 October 2026 ↩
  5. College ter Beoordeling van Geneesmiddelen (CBG-MEB) (2026). Geneesmiddeleninformatiebank (database of medicines authorised in the Netherlands). Regulator geneesmiddeleninformatiebank.nl — accessed 20 October 2026 ↩
  6. Brakedal B, Skeie GO, Derad C, Alstadhaug KB, Anundskås I, Berven H, et al. (2026). Nicotinamide Riboside for Patients With Early-Stage Parkinson Disease: The NOPARK Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. Clinical trial doi:10.1001/jama.2026.18828 ↩
  7. National Library of Medicine (2026). PubMed searches for nicotinamide riboside and nicotinamide mononucleotide, 23 October 2026. PubMed. Dataset pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov — accessed 23 October 2026 ↩
  8. Yoshino M, Yoshino J, Kayser BD, Patti GJ, Franczyk MP, Mills KF, et al. (2021). Nicotinamide mononucleotide increases muscle insulin sensitivity in prediabetic women. Science 372:1224-1229. Clinical trial doi:10.1126/science.abe9985 ↩
  9. Grant R, Berg J, Mestayer R, Braidy N, Bennett J, Broom S, Watson J (2019). A Pilot Study Investigating Changes in the Human Plasma and Urine NAD+ Metabolome During a 6 Hour Intravenous Infusion of NAD. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 11:257. Research article doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00257 ↩
  10. Yu X, Xu J, Cao J, Xu Q, Chen H, Yu D, Yao X, Chen K, Ma L (2026). Effect of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide on Heart Failure Caused by Ischemic Cardiomyopathy: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs 26:97-106. Clinical trial doi:10.1007/s40256-025-00764-7 ↩
  11. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026). Bulk Drug Substances Nominated for Use in Compounding Under Section 503A of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (categories 1–3), updated 14 May 2026. Regulator fda.gov — accessed 20 October 2026 ↩
  12. Godic A, Townsend J (2026). Intravenous longevity therapy: a critical review of evidence, mechanisms, and clinical utility. Acta Dermatovenerologica Alpina, Pannonica et Adriatica 35:39-43. Review PMID 41915584 ↩
  13. National Center for Biotechnology Information (2026). PubChem Compound Summaries: CID 5892 (NAD+, nadide), CID 439924 (nicotinamide riboside), CID 14180 (nicotinamide mononucleotide). PubChem. Dataset pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov — accessed 23 October 2026 ↩
  14. EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA), Turck D, Castenmiller J, de Henauw S, et al. (2019). Safety of nicotinamide riboside chloride as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 and bioavailability of nicotinamide from this source, in the context of Directive 2002/46/EC. EFSA Journal 17:e05775. Regulator doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5775 ↩
  15. European Parliament and Council of the European Union (2002). Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, Article 2 (definition of food). Official Journal of the European Communities, L 31. Law eur-lex.europa.eu — accessed 23 October 2026 ↩
  16. World Anti-Doping Agency (2025). World Anti-Doping Code International Standard: Prohibited List 2026. Regulator wada-ama.org — accessed 20 October 2026 ↩
  17. U.S. Anti-Doping Agency (2026). IV Infusions: Explanatory Note. Web page usada.org — accessed 23 October 2026 ↩
  18. Martens CR, Denman BA, Mazzo MR, Armstrong ML, Reisdorph N, McQueen MB, Chonchol M, Seals DR (2018). Chronic nicotinamide riboside supplementation is well-tolerated and elevates NAD(+) in healthy middle-aged and older adults. Nature Communications 9:1286. Clinical trial doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03421-7 ↩
  19. Dollerup OL, Christensen B, Svart M, Schmidt MS, Sulek K, Ringgaard S, et al. (2018). A randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of nicotinamide riboside in obese men: safety, insulin-sensitivity, and lipid-mobilizing effects. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 108:343-353. Clinical trial doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqy132 ↩
  20. Brakedal B, Dölle C, Riemer F, Ma Y, Nido GS, Skeie GO, et al. (2022). The NADPARK study: A randomized phase I trial of nicotinamide riboside supplementation in Parkinson's disease. Cell Metabolism 34:396-407.e6. Clinical trial doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2022.02.001 ↩
  21. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026). openFDA Drugs@FDA queries, 23 October 2026: prezatide, GHK, copper tripeptide, AOD-9604, AOD9604, hexarelin, examorelin, nicotinamide riboside, nicotinamide mononucleotide, nadide, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, elamipretide. openFDA. Dataset api.fda.gov — accessed 23 October 2026 ↩
  22. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2016). GRAS Notice Inventory: GRN No. 635, nicotinamide riboside chloride (ChromaDex, Inc.). Regulator hfpappexternal.fda.gov — accessed 23 October 2026 ↩
  23. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Human Foods Program (2025). Response to citizen petition FDA-2023-P-0872 (Natural Products Association and Alliance for Natural Health USA) on the regulatory status of beta-nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN): petition granted in part and denied in part. Regulations.gov, document FDA-2023-P-0872-2754. Regulator regulations.gov — accessed 23 October 2026 ↩
  24. European Medicines Agency (2026). Orphan designations data download (JSON report of all EU orphan designations). Dataset ema.europa.eu — accessed 20 October 2026 ↩
  25. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2026). Bulk Drug Substances Used in Compounding Under Section 503A of the FD&C Act. Regulator fda.gov — accessed 20 October 2026 ↩
  26. World Anti-Doping Agency (2026). World Anti-Doping Code International Standard: Prohibited List 2027 (in effect 1 January 2027). Regulator wada-ama.org — accessed 20 October 2026 ↩
  27. EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA), Turck D, Bohn T, Castenmiller J, et al. (2021). Extension of use of nicotinamide riboside chloride as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. EFSA Journal 19:e06843. Regulator doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6843 ↩
  28. Maric T, Bazhin A, Khodakivskyi P, Mikhaylov G, Solodnikova E, Yevtodiyenko A, et al. (2023). A bioluminescent-based probe for in vivo non-invasive monitoring of nicotinamide riboside uptake reveals a link between metastasis and NAD(+) metabolism. Biosensors and Bioelectronics 220:114826. Research article doi:10.1016/j.bios.2022.114826 ↩
  29. Nakazzi F, Zarei M, Lopes M, Graor HJ, Beegan WC, Gu E, et al. (2026). Vitamin B3 derivatives support pancreatic cancer cell survival and chemotherapy resistance. Cancer Letters 645:218334. Research article doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2026.218334 ↩
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